Environmental implications on Earth remain largely overlooked due to Lunar Construction.

Oct 2026 : Emissions, material scarcity, and supply chain impacts associated with lunar development indicate the need for early evaluation within the frameworks of Earth’s planetary boundaries. Construction on the Moon is no longer a distant ambition, but has emerged as a central topic across the space and planetary science com-munities. Advancements in in situ resource utilization technologies, combined with experimental research using lunar regolith simulants and, to a limited extent, returned samples, have intensified interest in constructing permanent structures on the lunar surface.

These developments are often discussed in the context of long-term human presence, logistical independence, and reduced reliance on Earth-based supply chains for construction materials, energy systems, and life-support resources. Compared to conventional scenarios in which all such inputs are launched from Earth, this shift is considered essential for sustaining lunar activities and enabling future deep-space missions. However, this technical progress has largely outpaced consideration of its terrestrial environmental implications. As plans for off-Earth construction move forwards, questions regarding the material and energy inputs required, the emissions associated with production and launch activities, and the broader resource demands placed on Earth’s systems remain insufficiently addressed.

The perception that lunar construction is a low-impact alternative to terrestrial development may be not only premature but potentially misleading. The hidden environmental footprint of lunar construction, alongwith discussions of lunar construction frequently emphasise its potential to reduce dependence on Earth’s resources. The use of locally sourced materials, in particular, is often cited as evidence that such activity will carry a minimal environmental burden. However, such projections rarely account for the full system of inputs required to support construction beyond Earth. From launch vehicles and payload manufacturing to energy-intensive support systems on the lunar surface, the environmental footprint extends far beyond the Moon itself3,4. Although one can envisage a future in which lunar infrastructure is sufficiently developed to operate with minimal support from Earth, such a scenario lies far ahead. The timeline for achieving such autonomy is deeply uncertain, and in the meantime, the environmental and resource demands of off-Earth construction will remain substantial.

Rocket launches represent a substantial and immediate source of emissions. Since 1959, over 70 lunar exploration missions have been conducted. Each heavy-lift launch introduces large quantities of carbon dioxide, alumina particles, black carbon, and reactive gases such as chlorine and nitrogen oxides directly into the stratosphere. In addition, the re-entry and atmospheric destruction of orbital debris generates fine metallic particles and nitrogen oxides in the meso-sphere, which are subsequently transported to the stratosphere, particularly over the poles. These emissions can alter ozone chemistry and contribute to ozone layer depletion, with future launch and re-entry frequencies posing a risk of exceeding environmental thresholds.

In 2019 alone, stratospheric launches emitted approximately 5.82 Gg of CO₂, 0.28 Gg of black carbon, 0.22 Gg of nitrogen oxides, 0.50 Gg of reactive chlorine, and 0.91 Gg of particulate alumina6. In addition to atmospheric emissions, rocket launches contribute to the accumulation of space debris in Earth’s orbit, raising further concerns about the long-term environmental consequences of expanding off-Earth activities. The expected increase in launch frequency associated with lunar infrastructure will only intensify these impacts. In addition, the production and transportation of construction equipment, modular components, and support technologies rely on terrestrial industrial systems that are carbon intensive by design. These supply chain processes contribute to life-cycle environmental impacts that are rarely accounted for in discussions of lunar development.

Once, on the Moon, construction processes will remain energy demanding, particularly during their initial deployment phase. In the absence of atmosphere and combustible fuels, energy for heating, sintering, and manufacturing must be supplied by imported physical systems such as photovoltaic arrays, compact nuclear units or, in the longer term, wireless power beaming. Each of these options requires material infrastructure and energy inputs from Earth before becoming operational, and their timelines and energy returns under lunar conditions remain highly uncertain. The idea that lunar construction can proceed as a low-impact activity therefore depends not only on where building occurs, but on how inputs are sourced, delivered, and sustained, and for how long they will remain substantially dependent on Earth-based resources.

In general, the environmental cost of building on the Moon is not eliminated by shifting activity away from Earth. Rather, it is redistributed across a supply chain that remains deeply rooted in terrestrial systems. Failing to account for these broader material and energetic linkages conveys a misleading message on the link between Earth-bound extraction and off-world sustainability. Moreover, the eventual disposal of lunar equipment and infrastructure presents further environmental challenges. These systems may have shorter operational lifetimes than anticipated under the harsh lunar conditions, contributing to a growing accumulation of non-functional debris in space, with limited options for recovery or mitigation. New materials with uncertain consequences. The concept of building on the Moon often relies on the use of in situ materials, particularly lunar regolith, as a means of reducing launch mass and minimising logistical complexity. Various approaches have been proposed, including sintering regolith through thermal processes, mixing it with sulphur to form concrete analogues, and developing additive manufacturing techniques adapted to the lunar surface. These technologies are intended to minimise dependence on Earth, yet their development itself requires substantial terrestrial investment. Experimental research, materials engineering, and testing infrastructure for lunar construction methods rely heavily on Earth-based resources, generating emissions and material demand that are rarely accounted for.

The equipment necessary to implement in situ construction, such as sintering systems, 3D printers, and support modules, must be designed, manufactured, and launched from Earth. Even if local materials are used on the Moon, the systems enabling their utilization are embedded within a terrestrial industrial footprint. The environmental cost of building with lunar regolith thus extends beyond launch mass savings and needs to include the broader supply chains that support these technologies. The complexity of lunar environmental conditions further amplifies these challenges. Materials and systems must withstand extreme temperature cycles, radiation, and abrasive dust often requiring specialised engineering and the use of rare or energy-intensive resources. Without deliberate efforts to simplify production requirements and incorporate ecological design principles at an early stage, efforts to enhance sustainability may paradoxically increase resource scarcity and environmental impact on Earth.

Reframing construction within Earth’s planetary boundaries:

The environmental dimensions of lunar activity are often framed as external to Earth’s systems, with an emphasis on reducing terrestrial resource dependence14. However, this narrative overlooks the substantial material extraction, energy use, and emissions associated with supporting off-Earth activities. These processes remain deeply embedded in terrestrial industrial systems and carry direct consequences for Earth’s environment. The Planetary Boundaries Framework was developed to guide sustainable development on Earth by identifying critical thresholds beyond which environmental change becomes difficult to reverse. Although lunar construction occurs beyond the biosphere, its enabling infrastructure draws heavily on terrestrial resources.

The cumulative impacts of supply chain, launch emissions, and space debris accumulation must therefore be assessed within the same planetary boundaries that constrain sustainable activity on Earth. Integrating lunar construction into planetary boundaries thinking would provide a more complete understanding of its environmental costs. It would also help to prevent the externalization of terrestrial environmental burdens under the assumption that off-Earth activities are inherently sustainable. To translate this perspective into action, governance frameworks could incorporate forward-looking safeguards. These may include requiring environmental assessments for lunar missions, extending debris mitigation rules to cislunar activities, and establishing monitoring systems that track cumulative impacts.

Such steps would help internalise Earth-based consequences within early decision-making, rather than treating them as downstream effects. The growing interest in lunar construction has so far advanced without clear frameworks to assess its broader environmental implications for Earth. The issues outlined here, including energy and material demands, associated with novel building methods and the cumulative pressures on terrestrial resources, suggest the need for more careful scrutiny. Future assessments should adopt a broad spatial-scale and full life-cycle perspective, accounting for climate change, material depletion, and terrestrial ecosystem impacts. Establishing criteria to evaluate broader impacts of supporting lunar infrastructure may help ensure that early decisions do not exacerbate resource scarcity or environmental degradation on Earth. As momentum builds, making space for this kind of reflection will be critical.

Team Maverick.